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1、PaSSaRe3TheConservationEthicThegoalsofconservationincludeconservinghabitat,preventingdeforestation,haltingspeciesextinction,reducingoverfishingandmitigatingclimatechange.Differentphilosophicaloutlooksguideconservationiststowardsthesegoals.A-Theprincipalvalueunderlyingmanyexpressionsoftheconservation
2、ethicisthatthenaturalworldhasintrinsicandintangibleworthalongwithpracticalorutilitarianvalue-aviewcarriedforwardbypartsofthescientificconservationmovementandsomeoftheolderRomanticschoolsofecologymovement.Philosophershaveattachedintrinsicvaluetodifferentaspectsofnature,whetherthisisindividualorganism
3、s(biocentrism)orecologicalwholessuchasspeciesorecosystems(ecoholism).B-IntheUnitedStatesofAmerica,theyear1864sawthepublicationoftwobookswhichlaidthefoundationforRomanticandUtilitarianconservationtraditionsinAmerica.TheposthumouspublicationofHenryDavidThoreausWaldenestablishedthegrandeurofunspoiledna
4、tureasacitadeltonourishthespiritofman.FromGeorgePerkinsMarshaverydifferentbook,ManandNaturezlatersubtitledTheEarthasModifiedbyHumanAction,cataloguedhisobservationsofmanexhaustingandalteringthelandfromwhichhissustenancederives.C-TheconsumerconservationethicissometimesexpressedbythefourRs:Rethink,Redu
5、ce,Recycle,Repair.Thissocialethicprimarilyrelatestolocalpurchasing,moralpurchasing,thesustainedandefficientuseofrenewableresources,themoderationofdestructiveuseoffiniteresources,andthepreventionofharmtocommonresourcessuchasairandwaterquality,thenaturalfunctionsofalivingearth,andculturalvaluesinabuil
6、tenvironment.D-Distincttrendsexistregardingconservationdevelopment.Whilemanycountrieseffortstopreservespeciesandtheirhabitatshavebeengovernment-led,thoseinnorthwesternEuropetendedtoariseoutofthemiddle-classandaristocraticinterestinnaturalhistory,expressedattheleveloftheindividualandthenational,regio
7、nalorlocallearnedsociety.Thus,countrieslikeBritain,theNetherlandsandGermanyhadwhatwewouldtodaytermnon-governmentalorganizations-intheshapeoftheRoyalSocietyfortheProtectionofBirds,NationalTrustandCountyNaturalistsTrusts(datingbackto1889,1895and1912respectively),NatuurmonumentenzProvincialConservation
8、TrustsforeachDutchprovince,Vogelbeschermingzandsoon-alongtimebeforetherewerenationalparksandnationalnaturereserves.ThisinpartreflectstheabsenceofwildernessareasinheavilycultivatedEurope,aswellasalongstandinginterestinlaissez-fairegovernmentinsomecountries,liketheUK,leavingitasnocoincidencethatJohnMu
9、irztheScottish-bornfounderoftheNationalParkmovement(andhenceofgovernment-sponsoredconservation)didhissterlingworkintheUSA,wherehewasthedrivingforcebehindtheestablishmentofsuchnationalparksasYosemiteandYellowstone.Nowadays,officiallymorethan10percentoftheworldislegallyprotectedinsomewayortheother,and
10、,inpractice,privatefundraisingisinsufficienttopayfortheeffectivemanagementofsomuchlandwithprotectedstatus.E-Protectedareasindevelopingcountries,whereprobablyasmanyas70-80percentofthespeciesoftheworldlive,stillenjoyverylittleeffectivemanagementandprotection.Somecountries,suchasQD国IELTSADVANTAGEMexico
11、,havenon-profitcivilorganizationsandlandownersdedicatedtoprotectingvastprivateproperty,suchasthecaseofHaciendaChichensMayaJungleReserveandBirdRefugeinChichenItza,Yucatan.TheAdoptARangerFoundationhascalculatedthatworldwideabout140,000rangersareneededtooverseetheprotectedareasindevelopingandtransition
12、countries.Thereisnodataonhowmanyrangersareemployedatthemoment,butprobablylessthanhalftheprotectedareasindevelopingandtransitioncountrieshaveanyrangersatallandthosethathavethemareatleast50%short.Thismeansthattherewouldbeaworldwiderangerdeficitof105,000rangersinthedevelopingandtransitioncountries.F-Ad
13、optARangerfearsthattherangerdeficitisthegreatestsinglelimitingfactorineffectivelyconservingnaturein75%oftheworld.Currently,noconservationorganizationorwesterncountryorinternationalorganizationaddressesthisproblem.AdoptARangerhasbeenincorporatedtodrawworldwidepublicattentiontothemosturgentproblemthat
14、conservationisfacingindevelopingandtransitioncountries:protectedareaswithoutfieldstaff.Veryspecifically,itwillcontributetosolvingtheproblembyfundraisingtofinancerangersinthefield.Itwillalsohelpgovernmentsindevelopingandtransitioncountriestoassessrealisticstaffingneedsandstaffingstrategies.Others,inc
15、ludingSurvivalInternational,haveadvocatedinsteadforcooperationwithlocaltribalpeoples,whoarenaturalalliesoftheconservationmovementandcanprovidecost-effectiveprotection.G-Thetermsconservationandpreservationarefrequentlyconflatedoutsidetheacademic,scientific,andprofessionalkindsofliterature.TheUSNation
16、alParkServiceoffersthefollowingexplanationoftheimportantwaysinwhichthesetwotermsrepresentverydifferentconceptionsofenvironmentalprotectionethics:Conservationandpreservationarecloselylinkedandmayindeedseemtomeanthesamething.Bothtermsinvolveadegreeofprotection,buthowthatprotectioniscarriedoutisthekeydifference.Conservationisgenerallyassociatedwiththeprotectionofnaturalresources,whilepreservationisassociatedwiththeprotectionofbuildings,objects,andlandscapes.Putsim
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